Published On:Saturday, 24 December 2011
Posted by Muhammad Atif Saeed
Standard Costing
Standard costing is an important subtopic of cost accounting. Standard costs are usually associated with a manufacturing company's costs of direct material, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead.
Rather than assigning the actual costs of direct material, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead to a product, many manufacturers assign the expected or standard cost. This means that a manufacturer's inventories and cost of goods sold will begin with amounts reflecting the standard costs, not the actual costs, of a product. Manufacturers, of course, still have to pay the actual costs. As a result there are almost always differences between the actual costs and the standard costs, and those differences are known as variances.
Standard costing and the related variances is a valuable management tool. If a variance arises, management becomes aware that manufacturing costs have differed from the standard (planned, expected) costs.
If we assume that a company uses the perpetual inventory system and that it carries all of its inventory accounts at standard cost (including Direct Materials Inventory or Stores), then the standard cost of a finished product is the sum of the standard costs of the inputs:
1. Direct material
2. Direct labor
3. Manufacturing overhead
a. Variable manufacturing overhead
b. Fixed manufacturing overhead
Usually there will be two variances computed for each input:
Direct materials refers to just that—raw materials that are directly traceable into a product. In your apron business the direct material is the denim. (In a food manufacturer's business the direct materials are the ingredients such as flour and sugar; in an automobile assembly plant, the direct materials are the cars' component parts).
DenimWorks purchases its denim from a local supplier with terms of net 30 days, FOB destination. This means that title to the denim passes from the supplier to DenimWorks when DenimWorks receives the material. When the denim arrives, DenimWorks will record the denim received in its Direct Materials Inventory at the standard cost of $3 per yard (see standards table above) and will record the liability at the actual cost for the amount received. Any difference between the standard cost of the material and the actual cost of the material received is recorded as a purchase price variance.
Examples of Standard Cost of Materials and Price Variance
Let's assume that on January 2, 2010 DenimWorks ordered 1,000 yards of denim at $2.90 per yard. On January 8, 2010 DenimWorks receives 1,000 yards of denim and an invoice for the actual cost of $2,900. On January 8, 2010 DenimWorks becomes the owner of the material and has a liability to its supplier. On January 8 DenimWorks' Direct Materials Inventory is increased by the standard cost of $3,000 (1,000 yards of denim at the standard cost of $3 per yard), Accounts Payable is credited for $2,900 (the actual amount owed to the supplier), and the difference of $100 is credited to Direct Materials Price Variance. In general journal format the entry looks like this:
The $100 credit to the price variance account communicates immediately (when the denim arrives) that the company is experiencing actual costs that are more favorable than the planned, standard cost.
In February, DenimWorks orders 3,000 yards of denim at $3.05 per yard. On March 1, 2010 DenimWorks receives the 3,000 yards of denim and an invoice for $9,150 due in 30 days. On March 1, the Direct Materials Inventory account is increased by the standard cost of $9,000 (3,000 yards at the standard cost of $3 per yard), Accounts Payable is credited for $9,150 (the actual cost of the denim), and the difference of $150 is debited to Direct Materials Price Variance as an unfavorable price variance:
After the March 1 transaction is posted, the Direct Materials Price Variance account shows a debit balance of $50 (the $100 credit on January 2 combined with the $150 debit on March 1). A debit balance in a variance account is always unfavorable—it shows that the total of actual costs is higher than the total of the expected standard costs. In other words, your company's profit will be $50 less than planned unless you take some action.
On June 1 your company receives 3,000 yards of denim at an actual cost of $2.92 per yard for a total of $8,760 due in 30 days. The entry is:
Direct Materials Inventory is debited for the standard cost of $9,000 (3,000 yards at $3 per yard), Accounts Payable is credited for the actual amount owed, and the difference of $240 is credited to Direct Materials Price Variance. A credit to the variance account indicates that the actual cost is less than the standard cost.
After this transaction is recorded, the Direct Materials Price Variance account shows an overall credit balance of $190. A credit balance in a variance account is always favorable. In other words, your company's profit will be $190 greater than planned due to the favorable cost of direct materials.
Note that the entire price variance pertaining to all of the direct materials received was recorded immediately. In other words, the price variance associated with the direct materials received was not delayed until the materials were used.
We will discuss later how to handle the balances in the variance accounts under the heading "What To Do With Variance Amounts".
Under a standard costing system, production and inventories are reported at the standard cost—including the standard quantity of direct materials that should have been used to make the products. If the manufacturer actually uses more direct materials than the standard quantity of materials for the products actually manufactured, the company will have an unfavorable direct materials usage variance. If the quantity of direct materials actually used is less than the standard quantity for the products produced, the company will have a favorable usage variance. The amount of a favorable and unfavorable variance is recorded in a general ledger account Direct Materials Usage Variance. (Alternative account titles include Direct Materials Quantity Variance or Direct Materials Efficiency Variance.) Let's demonstrate this variance with the following information.
January 2010
In order to calculate the direct materials usage or quantity variance, we start with the number of acceptable units of products that have been manufactured—also known as the good output. At DenimWorks this is the number of good aprons physically produced. If DenimWorks produces 100 large aprons and 60 small aprons during January, the production and the finished goods inventory will begin with the cost of the direct materials that should have been used to make those aprons. Any difference will be a variance.
Standard costs are sometimes referred to as the "should be costs." DenimWorks should be using 278 yards of denim to make 100 large aprons and 60 small aprons as shown in the following table.
We determine the total standard cost of the denim that should have been used to make the 160 aprons by multiplying the standard quantity of denim (278 yards) by the standard cost of a yard of denim ($3 per yard):
An inventory account (such as F.G. Inventory or Work in Process) is debited for $834; this is the standard cost of the direct materials component in the aprons manufactured in January 2010.
The Direct Materials Inventory account is reduced by the standard cost of the denim actually removed from the direct materials inventory. Let's assume that the actual quantity of denim removed from the direct materials inventory and used to make the aprons in January was 290 yards. Because Direct Materials Inventory reports the standard cost of the actual materials on hand, we reduce the account balance by $870 (290 yards used $3 standard cost per yard). After removing 290 yards of materials, the balance in the Direct Materials Inventory account is $2,130 (710 yards x $3 standard cost per yard).
The Direct Materials Usage Variance is: [the standard quantity of material that should have been used to make the good output minus the actual quantity of material used] X the standard cost per yard.
In our example, DenimWorks should have used 278 yards of material to make 100 large aprons and 60 small aprons. Because the company actually used 290 yards of denim, we say that DenimWorks did not operate efficiently—an extra 12 yards of denim was used (278 vs. 290 = 12). When we multiply the 12 yards by the standard cost of $3 per yard, the result is an unfavorable direct materials usage variance of $36.
Let's put the above information into a format commonly used for computing variances:
Direct Materials Usage/Quantity/Efficiency Variance Analysis
The journal entry for the direct materials portion of the January production is:
February 2010
Let's assume that in February 2010 DenimWorks produces 200 large aprons and 100 small aprons and that 520 yards of denim are actually used. From this information we can compute the following:
Let's put the above information into our format:
Direct Materials Usage (or Quantity) Variance Analysis
The journal entry for the direct materials portion of the February production is:
"Direct labor" refers to the work done by those employees who actually make the product on the production line. ("Indirect labor" is work done by employees who work in the production area, but do not work on the production line. Examples include employees who set up or maintain the equipment.)
Unlike direct materials (which are obtained prior to being used) direct labor is obtained and used at the same time. This means that for any given good output, we can compute the direct labor rate variance, the direct labor efficiency variance, and the standard direct labor cost at the same time.
January 2010
Let's begin by determining the standard cost of direct labor for the good output produced in January 2010:
Assuming that the actual direct labor in January adds up to 50 hours and the actual hourly rate of pay (including payroll taxes) is $9 per hour, our analysis will look like this:
Direct Labor Variance Analysis for January 2010:
In January, the direct labor efficiency variance (#3 above) is unfavorable because the company actually used 50 hours of direct labor—this is 8 hours more than the standard quantity of 42 hours allowed for the good output. The additional 8 hours is multiplied by the standard rate of $10 to give us an unfavorable direct labor efficiency variance of $80. (The direct labor efficiency variance could be called the direct labor quantity variance or usage variance.)
Note that DenimWorks paid $9 per hour for labor when the standard rate is $10 per hour. This $1 difference—multiplied by the 50 actual hours—results in a $50 favorable direct labor rate variance. (The direct labor rate variance could be called the direct labor price variance.)
The journal entry for the direct labor portion of the January production is:
February 2010
In February your company manufactures 200 large aprons and 100 small aprons. The standard cost of direct labor for the good output produced in February 2010 is computed here:
If we assume that the actual labor hours in February add up to 75 and the hourly rate of pay (including payroll taxes) is $11 per hour, the total equals $825. The analysis for February 2010 looks like this:
Direct Labor Variance Analysis for February 2010:
Notice that for the good output in February, the total actual labor costs amounted to $825 and the total standard cost of direct labor amounted to $800. This unfavorable difference of $25 agrees to the sum of the two labor variances:
The journal entry for the direct labor portion of the February production is:
Later in Part 5 we will discuss what to do with the balances in the direct labor variance accounts under the heading "What To Do With Variance Amounts".
"Fixed" manufacturing overhead costs remain the same in total even though the volume of production may increase by a modest amount. For example, the property tax on the manufacturing facility might be $50,000 per year and it arrives as one tax bill in December. The amount of the property tax bill was not dependent on the number of units produced or the number of machine hours that the plant operated. Other examples include the depreciation or rent on production facilities; salaries of production managers and supervisors; and professional memberships and training for personnel in the manufacturing area. Although the fixed manufacturing overhead costs present themselves as large monthly or annual expenses, they are, in reality, a small part of each product's cost.
DenimWorks has two fixed manufacturing overhead costs:
A small amount of these fixed manufacturing costs must be allocated to each apron produced. This is known as absorption costing and it explains why some accountants say that each product must "absorb" a portion of the fixed manufacturing overhead costs.
A simple way to assign or allocate the fixed costs is to base it on things such as direct labor hours, machine hours, or pounds of direct material. (Accountants realize that this is simplistic; they know that overhead costs are a result of—or are driven by—many different factors.) Nonetheless, we will assign the fixed manufacturing overhead costs to the aprons by using the same method we used for variable manufacturing overhead—by using direct labor hours.
Establishing a Predetermined Rate
Companies typically establish a standard fixed manufacturing overhead rate prior to the start of the year and then use that rate for the full year. Let's assume it is December 2009 and DenimWorks is developing the standard fixed manufacturing overhead rate to use in 2010. (As mentioned above, we will assign the fixed manufacturing overhead on the basis of direct labor hours.)
We can do that from the information given earlier (and repeated here):
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Budget Variance
The difference between the actual amount of fixed manufacturing overhead and the estimated amount (the amount budgeted when setting the overhead rate prior to the start of the year) is known as the fixed manufacturing overhead budget variance.
In our example, we budgeted the annual fixed manufacturing overhead at $8,400 (monthly rents of $700 x 12 months). If DenimWorks pays more than $8,400 for the year, there is an unfavorable budget variance; if the company pays less than $8,400 for the year, there is a favorable budget variance.
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Volume Variance
Recall that the fixed manufacturing overhead (such as the large amount of rent paid at the start of every month) must be assigned to each apron produced. In other words, each apron must absorb a small portion of the fixed manufacturing overhead. At DenimWorks, the fixed manufacturing overhead is assigned to the good output by multiplying the standard rate by the standard hours of direct labor in each apron. Hopefully, by the end of the year there are enough good aprons produced to absorb all of the fixed manufacturing overhead.
The fixed manufacturing overhead volume variance compares the amount of fixed manufacturing overhead budgeted to the amount that was applied to (or absorbed by) the good output. If the amount applied is less than the amount budgeted, there is an unfavorable volume variance—there was not enough good output to absorb the budgeted amount of fixed manufacturing overhead. If the amount applied to the good output is greater than the budgeted amount of fixed manufacturing overhead, the fixed manufacturing overhead volume variance is favorable. In summary, if DenimWorks applies more than the amount budgeted, the volume variance is favorable; if it applies less than the amount budgeted, the volume variance is unfavorable.
Illustration of Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Variances for 2010
Let's assume that in 2010 DenimWorks manufactures (has actual good output of) 5,300 large aprons and 2,600 small aprons. Let's also assume that the actual fixed manufacturing overhead costs for the year are $8,700. As we calculated earlier, the standard fixed manufacturing overhead rate is $4 per standard direct labor hour.
We begin by determining the fixed manufacturing overhead applied to (or absorbed by) the good output produced in the year 2010:
Our analysis looks like this:
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Analysis for the Year 2010:
This analysis shows that the actual fixed manufacturing overhead costs are $8,700 and the fixed manufacturing overhead costs applied to the good output are $8,440. This unfavorable difference of $260 agrees to the sum of the two variances:
Actual fixed manufacturing overhead costs are debited to overhead cost accounts. The credits are made to accounts such as Accounts Payable or Cash. For example:
Another entry records how these overheads are assigned to the product:
We will discuss later how to report the balances in the variance accounts under the heading "What To Do With Variance Amounts".
If the direct labor is not efficient at producing the good output, there will be an unfavorable labor efficiency variance. That inefficiency will likely cause additional variable manufacturing overhead—resulting in an unfavorable variable manufacturing overhead efficiency variance. If these inefficiencies are significant, it is possible that the company may not be able to produce enough good output to absorb the planned fixed manufacturing overhead—resulting in an unfavorable fixed manufacturing overhead volume variance.
We will pursue the interdependence of variances in the following examples.
Example 1
Assume your company's standard cost for denim is $3 per yard, but you buy some denim at a bargain price of $2.50 per yard. For each yard of denim purchased, DenimWorks reports a favorable direct materials price variance of $0.50.
Let's also assume that the quality of the low-cost denim ends up being slightly lower than the quality to which your company is accustomed. This lesser quality denim causes the production to be a bit slower as workers spend additional time working around flaws in the material. In addition to this decline in productivity, you also find that some of the denim is of such poor quality that it has to be discarded. Further, some of the finished aprons don't pass the final inspection due to occasional defects not detected as the aprons were made.
You get the picture. If the favorable $0.50 per yard price variance correlates with lower quality, that denim was no bargain. The $0.50 per yard favorable variance may be more than offset by the following unfavorable quantity variances:
Keep in mind that the standard cost is the cost allowed on the good output. Putting material, labor, and manufacturing overhead costs into products that will not end up as good output will likely result in unfavorable variances.
Example 2
Let's assume that you decide to hire an unskilled worker for $9 per hour instead of a skilled worker for the standard cost of $15 per hour. Although the unskilled worker will create a favorable direct labor rate variance of $6 per hour, you may see significant unfavorable variances such as direct material usage variance, direct labor efficiency variance, variable manufacturing overhead efficiency variance, and possibly a fixed manufacturing volume variance.
These two examples highlight what experienced managers know—you need to look at more than price. A low cost for an inferior input is no bargain if it results in costly inefficiencies.
Because the material covered here is considered an introduction to this topic, many complexities have been omitted. You should always consult with an accounting professional for assistance with your own specific circumstances.
Rather than assigning the actual costs of direct material, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead to a product, many manufacturers assign the expected or standard cost. This means that a manufacturer's inventories and cost of goods sold will begin with amounts reflecting the standard costs, not the actual costs, of a product. Manufacturers, of course, still have to pay the actual costs. As a result there are almost always differences between the actual costs and the standard costs, and those differences are known as variances.
Standard costing and the related variances is a valuable management tool. If a variance arises, management becomes aware that manufacturing costs have differed from the standard (planned, expected) costs.
- If actual costs are greater than standard costs the variance is unfavorable. An unfavorable variance tells management that if everything else stays constant the company's actual profit will be less than planned.
- If actual costs are less than standard costs the variance is favorable. A favorable variance tells management that if everything else stays constant the actual profit will likely exceed the planned profit.
If we assume that a company uses the perpetual inventory system and that it carries all of its inventory accounts at standard cost (including Direct Materials Inventory or Stores), then the standard cost of a finished product is the sum of the standard costs of the inputs:
1. Direct material
2. Direct labor
3. Manufacturing overhead
a. Variable manufacturing overhead
b. Fixed manufacturing overhead
Usually there will be two variances computed for each input:
|
Sample Standards Table
Let's assume that your Uncle Pete runs a retail outlet that sells denim aprons in two sizes. Pete suggests that you get into the manufacturing side of the business, so on January 1, 2010 you start up an apron production company called DenimWorks. Using the best information at hand, the two of you compile the following estimates to use as standards for 2010:
Standards Table for DenimWorks
The aprons are easy to produce, and no apron is ever left unfinished at the end of any given day. This means that your company never has work-in-process inventory.
When we make your journal entries for completed aprons (shown below), we'll use an account called Inventory-FG which means Finished Goods Inventory. (Some companies will use WIP Inventory or Work-in-Process Inventory). We'll also use the account Direct Materials Inventory. (Other account titles often used for direct materials are Raw Materials Inventory or Stores.)
Standards Table for DenimWorks
| Denim material needed for each apron* | 2.0 yd. | 1.3 yd. | |
| Time required to cut and sew each apron | 0.3 hr. | 0.2 hr. | |
| Denim cost per square yard | $3 | ||
| Labor cost per hour (includes payroll taxes) | $10 | ||
| Electricity and supplies used per hour of labor | $2 | ||
| Rent for space per month (includes heat/air) | $600 | ||
| Rent for equipment per month | $100 | ||
| Planned production for the year 2010 | 5,000 aprons | 3,000 aprons | |
| Planned yards of denim needed for 2010 | 13,900 yd. | 10,000 yd. | 3,900 yd. |
| Planned hours to cut and sew in 2010 | 2,100 hr. | 1,500 hr. | 600 hr. |
| *The denim comes on rolls that are one yard wide, so one yard (yd.) of denim is the same as one square yard of denim. |
The aprons are easy to produce, and no apron is ever left unfinished at the end of any given day. This means that your company never has work-in-process inventory.
When we make your journal entries for completed aprons (shown below), we'll use an account called Inventory-FG which means Finished Goods Inventory. (Some companies will use WIP Inventory or Work-in-Process Inventory). We'll also use the account Direct Materials Inventory. (Other account titles often used for direct materials are Raw Materials Inventory or Stores.)
Direct Materials Purchased: Standard Cost and Price Variance
DenimWorks purchases its denim from a local supplier with terms of net 30 days, FOB destination. This means that title to the denim passes from the supplier to DenimWorks when DenimWorks receives the material. When the denim arrives, DenimWorks will record the denim received in its Direct Materials Inventory at the standard cost of $3 per yard (see standards table above) and will record the liability at the actual cost for the amount received. Any difference between the standard cost of the material and the actual cost of the material received is recorded as a purchase price variance.
Examples of Standard Cost of Materials and Price Variance
Let's assume that on January 2, 2010 DenimWorks ordered 1,000 yards of denim at $2.90 per yard. On January 8, 2010 DenimWorks receives 1,000 yards of denim and an invoice for the actual cost of $2,900. On January 8, 2010 DenimWorks becomes the owner of the material and has a liability to its supplier. On January 8 DenimWorks' Direct Materials Inventory is increased by the standard cost of $3,000 (1,000 yards of denim at the standard cost of $3 per yard), Accounts Payable is credited for $2,900 (the actual amount owed to the supplier), and the difference of $100 is credited to Direct Materials Price Variance. In general journal format the entry looks like this:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| Jan. 8, 2010 | Direct Materials Inventory | 3,000 | ||
| Accounts Payable | 2,900 | |||
| Direct Materials Price Variance | 100 | |||
The $100 credit to the price variance account communicates immediately (when the denim arrives) that the company is experiencing actual costs that are more favorable than the planned, standard cost.
In February, DenimWorks orders 3,000 yards of denim at $3.05 per yard. On March 1, 2010 DenimWorks receives the 3,000 yards of denim and an invoice for $9,150 due in 30 days. On March 1, the Direct Materials Inventory account is increased by the standard cost of $9,000 (3,000 yards at the standard cost of $3 per yard), Accounts Payable is credited for $9,150 (the actual cost of the denim), and the difference of $150 is debited to Direct Materials Price Variance as an unfavorable price variance:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| Mar. 1, 2010 | Direct Materials Inventory | 9,000 | ||
| Direct Materials Price Variance | 150 | |||
| Accounts Payable | 9,150 | |||
After the March 1 transaction is posted, the Direct Materials Price Variance account shows a debit balance of $50 (the $100 credit on January 2 combined with the $150 debit on March 1). A debit balance in a variance account is always unfavorable—it shows that the total of actual costs is higher than the total of the expected standard costs. In other words, your company's profit will be $50 less than planned unless you take some action.
On June 1 your company receives 3,000 yards of denim at an actual cost of $2.92 per yard for a total of $8,760 due in 30 days. The entry is:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| June 1, 2010 | Direct Materials Inventory | 9,000 | ||
| Direct Materials Price Variance | 240 | |||
| Accounts Payable | 8,760 | |||
Direct Materials Inventory is debited for the standard cost of $9,000 (3,000 yards at $3 per yard), Accounts Payable is credited for the actual amount owed, and the difference of $240 is credited to Direct Materials Price Variance. A credit to the variance account indicates that the actual cost is less than the standard cost.
After this transaction is recorded, the Direct Materials Price Variance account shows an overall credit balance of $190. A credit balance in a variance account is always favorable. In other words, your company's profit will be $190 greater than planned due to the favorable cost of direct materials.
Note that the entire price variance pertaining to all of the direct materials received was recorded immediately. In other words, the price variance associated with the direct materials received was not delayed until the materials were used.
We will discuss later how to handle the balances in the variance accounts under the heading "What To Do With Variance Amounts".
Direct Materials Usage Variance
January 2010
In order to calculate the direct materials usage or quantity variance, we start with the number of acceptable units of products that have been manufactured—also known as the good output. At DenimWorks this is the number of good aprons physically produced. If DenimWorks produces 100 large aprons and 60 small aprons during January, the production and the finished goods inventory will begin with the cost of the direct materials that should have been used to make those aprons. Any difference will be a variance.
NOTE:
We are not determining the quantity of aprons that DenimWorks should have made. Rather, we are determining whether the 100 large aprons and 60 small aprons that were actually manufactured were produced efficiently. In the case of direct materials, we want to determine whether or not the company used the proper amount of denim to make the 160 aprons that were actually produced. (For the purposes of calculating the direct materials usage variance, it does not concern us whether DenimWorks had a goal to produce 100 aprons, 200, aprons, or 250 aprons.)
We are not determining the quantity of aprons that DenimWorks should have made. Rather, we are determining whether the 100 large aprons and 60 small aprons that were actually manufactured were produced efficiently. In the case of direct materials, we want to determine whether or not the company used the proper amount of denim to make the 160 aprons that were actually produced. (For the purposes of calculating the direct materials usage variance, it does not concern us whether DenimWorks had a goal to produce 100 aprons, 200, aprons, or 250 aprons.)
Standard costs are sometimes referred to as the "should be costs." DenimWorks should be using 278 yards of denim to make 100 large aprons and 60 small aprons as shown in the following table.
| Actual aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard yards of denim per apron manufactured | |||
| Total standard yards of denim for the actual good aprons manufactured—the number of yards of denim that should have been used to make the good output |
We determine the total standard cost of the denim that should have been used to make the 160 aprons by multiplying the standard quantity of denim (278 yards) by the standard cost of a yard of denim ($3 per yard):
| Total standard yards of denim for the actual good (aprons) manufactured | |||
| Standard cost per yard | |||
| Standard cost of denim in the good output—the aprons actually produced in January |
An inventory account (such as F.G. Inventory or Work in Process) is debited for $834; this is the standard cost of the direct materials component in the aprons manufactured in January 2010.
The Direct Materials Inventory account is reduced by the standard cost of the denim actually removed from the direct materials inventory. Let's assume that the actual quantity of denim removed from the direct materials inventory and used to make the aprons in January was 290 yards. Because Direct Materials Inventory reports the standard cost of the actual materials on hand, we reduce the account balance by $870 (290 yards used $3 standard cost per yard). After removing 290 yards of materials, the balance in the Direct Materials Inventory account is $2,130 (710 yards x $3 standard cost per yard).
The Direct Materials Usage Variance is: [the standard quantity of material that should have been used to make the good output minus the actual quantity of material used] X the standard cost per yard.
In our example, DenimWorks should have used 278 yards of material to make 100 large aprons and 60 small aprons. Because the company actually used 290 yards of denim, we say that DenimWorks did not operate efficiently—an extra 12 yards of denim was used (278 vs. 290 = 12). When we multiply the 12 yards by the standard cost of $3 per yard, the result is an unfavorable direct materials usage variance of $36.
Let's put the above information into a format commonly used for computing variances:
The journal entry for the direct materials portion of the January production is:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| Jan. 31, 2010 | Inventory-FG | 834 | ||
| Direct Materials Usage Variance | 36 | |||
| Direct Materials Inventory | 870 | |||
February 2010
Let's assume that in February 2010 DenimWorks produces 200 large aprons and 100 small aprons and that 520 yards of denim are actually used. From this information we can compute the following:
| Actual aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard yards of denim per apron manufactured | |||
| Total standard yards of denim for the actual aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard cost per yard | |||
| Standard cost of denim in the good output |
Let's put the above information into our format:
The journal entry for the direct materials portion of the February production is:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| Feb. 28, 2010 | Inventory-FG | 1,590 | ||
| Direct Materials Usage Variance | 30 | |||
| Direct Materials Inventory | 1,560 | |||
Direct Labor: Standard Cost, Rate Variance, Efficiency Variance
"Direct labor" refers to the work done by those employees who actually make the product on the production line. ("Indirect labor" is work done by employees who work in the production area, but do not work on the production line. Examples include employees who set up or maintain the equipment.)
Unlike direct materials (which are obtained prior to being used) direct labor is obtained and used at the same time. This means that for any given good output, we can compute the direct labor rate variance, the direct labor efficiency variance, and the standard direct labor cost at the same time.
January 2010
Let's begin by determining the standard cost of direct labor for the good output produced in January 2010:
| Actual aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard hours of direct labor per apron manufactured | |||
| Total standard hours of direct labor for actual aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard cost per direct labor hour incl. payroll taxes | |||
| Standard cost of direct labor in the good output |
Assuming that the actual direct labor in January adds up to 50 hours and the actual hourly rate of pay (including payroll taxes) is $9 per hour, our analysis will look like this:
4. Credit Wages Payable for the actual direct labor cost. | 5. Direct Labor Rate Variance Act Hr x (Std Rate - Act Rate) | |||
In January, the direct labor efficiency variance (#3 above) is unfavorable because the company actually used 50 hours of direct labor—this is 8 hours more than the standard quantity of 42 hours allowed for the good output. The additional 8 hours is multiplied by the standard rate of $10 to give us an unfavorable direct labor efficiency variance of $80. (The direct labor efficiency variance could be called the direct labor quantity variance or usage variance.)
Note that DenimWorks paid $9 per hour for labor when the standard rate is $10 per hour. This $1 difference—multiplied by the 50 actual hours—results in a $50 favorable direct labor rate variance. (The direct labor rate variance could be called the direct labor price variance.)
The journal entry for the direct labor portion of the January production is:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| Jan. 31, 2010 | Inventory-FG | 420 | ||
| Direct Labor Efficiency Variance | 80 | |||
| Direct Labor Rate Variance | 50 | |||
| Wages Payable | 450 | |||
February 2010
In February your company manufactures 200 large aprons and 100 small aprons. The standard cost of direct labor for the good output produced in February 2010 is computed here:
| Actual aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard hours of direct labor per apron manufactured | |||
| Total standard hours of direct labor for actual aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard cost per direct labor hour incl. payroll taxes | |||
| Standard cost of direct labor in the good output |
If we assume that the actual labor hours in February add up to 75 and the hourly rate of pay (including payroll taxes) is $11 per hour, the total equals $825. The analysis for February 2010 looks like this:
4. Credit Wages Payable for the actual direct labor cost. | 5. Direct Labor Rate Variance Act Hr x (Std Rate - Act Rate) | |||
Notice that for the good output in February, the total actual labor costs amounted to $825 and the total standard cost of direct labor amounted to $800. This unfavorable difference of $25 agrees to the sum of the two labor variances:
| Direct labor efficiency variance | $50 Favorable |
| Direct labor rate variance | $75 Unfavorable |
| Total Direct Labor Variance | $25 Unfavorable |
The journal entry for the direct labor portion of the February production is:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| Feb. 28, 2010 | Inventory-FG | 800 | ||
| Direct Labor Rate Variance | 75 | |||
| Direct Labor Efficiency Variance | 50 | |||
| Wages Payable | 825 | |||
Later in Part 5 we will discuss what to do with the balances in the direct labor variance accounts under the heading "What To Do With Variance Amounts".
Fixed Mfg Overhead: Standard Cost, Budget Variance, Volume Variance
DenimWorks has two fixed manufacturing overhead costs:
| Rent for space per month including heat/air | $600 |
| Rent for equipment per month | $100 |
| Total Fixed Manufacturing Overhead per Month | $700 |
A small amount of these fixed manufacturing costs must be allocated to each apron produced. This is known as absorption costing and it explains why some accountants say that each product must "absorb" a portion of the fixed manufacturing overhead costs.
A simple way to assign or allocate the fixed costs is to base it on things such as direct labor hours, machine hours, or pounds of direct material. (Accountants realize that this is simplistic; they know that overhead costs are a result of—or are driven by—many different factors.) Nonetheless, we will assign the fixed manufacturing overhead costs to the aprons by using the same method we used for variable manufacturing overhead—by using direct labor hours.
Establishing a Predetermined Rate
Companies typically establish a standard fixed manufacturing overhead rate prior to the start of the year and then use that rate for the full year. Let's assume it is December 2009 and DenimWorks is developing the standard fixed manufacturing overhead rate to use in 2010. (As mentioned above, we will assign the fixed manufacturing overhead on the basis of direct labor hours.)
| Step 1. | Project/estimate the fixed manufacturing overhead costs for the year 2010. We indicated above that DenimWorks' only fixed manufacturing overhead costs are rents of $700 per month (space and equipment) totaling to $8,400 for the year 2010. |
| Step 2. | Project/estimate the total number of standard direct labor hours that are needed to manufacture your products during 2010. |
We can do that from the information given earlier (and repeated here):
| Time required to cut and sew - the standard | |||
| Planned production for the year 2010 | |||
| Total standard direct labor hours in the planned production for the year 2010 | 1,500 | 600 | 2,100 |
| Step 3. | Compute the standard fixed manufacturing overhead rate to be used in 2010.
|
NOTE:
One of the reasons a company develops a predetermined annual rate is so that the rate is uniform throughout the year, even though the number of units manufactured may fluctuate month by month.
For example, if the company used monthly rates, the rate would be high in the months when few units are manufactured (monthly fixed costs of $700 ÷ 100 units produced = $7 per unit) and low when many units are produced (monthly fixed costs of $700 ÷ 350 units = $2 per unit).
One of the reasons a company develops a predetermined annual rate is so that the rate is uniform throughout the year, even though the number of units manufactured may fluctuate month by month.
For example, if the company used monthly rates, the rate would be high in the months when few units are manufactured (monthly fixed costs of $700 ÷ 100 units produced = $7 per unit) and low when many units are produced (monthly fixed costs of $700 ÷ 350 units = $2 per unit).
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Budget Variance
The difference between the actual amount of fixed manufacturing overhead and the estimated amount (the amount budgeted when setting the overhead rate prior to the start of the year) is known as the fixed manufacturing overhead budget variance.
In our example, we budgeted the annual fixed manufacturing overhead at $8,400 (monthly rents of $700 x 12 months). If DenimWorks pays more than $8,400 for the year, there is an unfavorable budget variance; if the company pays less than $8,400 for the year, there is a favorable budget variance.
Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Volume Variance
Recall that the fixed manufacturing overhead (such as the large amount of rent paid at the start of every month) must be assigned to each apron produced. In other words, each apron must absorb a small portion of the fixed manufacturing overhead. At DenimWorks, the fixed manufacturing overhead is assigned to the good output by multiplying the standard rate by the standard hours of direct labor in each apron. Hopefully, by the end of the year there are enough good aprons produced to absorb all of the fixed manufacturing overhead.
The fixed manufacturing overhead volume variance compares the amount of fixed manufacturing overhead budgeted to the amount that was applied to (or absorbed by) the good output. If the amount applied is less than the amount budgeted, there is an unfavorable volume variance—there was not enough good output to absorb the budgeted amount of fixed manufacturing overhead. If the amount applied to the good output is greater than the budgeted amount of fixed manufacturing overhead, the fixed manufacturing overhead volume variance is favorable. In summary, if DenimWorks applies more than the amount budgeted, the volume variance is favorable; if it applies less than the amount budgeted, the volume variance is unfavorable.
Illustration of Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Variances for 2010
Let's assume that in 2010 DenimWorks manufactures (has actual good output of) 5,300 large aprons and 2,600 small aprons. Let's also assume that the actual fixed manufacturing overhead costs for the year are $8,700. As we calculated earlier, the standard fixed manufacturing overhead rate is $4 per standard direct labor hour.
We begin by determining the fixed manufacturing overhead applied to (or absorbed by) the good output produced in the year 2010:
| Actual aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard hours of direct labor hours per apron manufactured | |||
| Total standard hours of direct labor in the good aprons manufactured | |||
| Standard cost per direct labor hour for fixed manufacturing overhead | |||
| Standard cost of fixed manufacturing overhead in (applied to) the good output |
Our analysis looks like this:
4. Actual fixed manufacturing overhead | 5. Fixed manufacturing overhead budget variance Budgeted Amount - Actual Amount | (1 - 2) | ||
This analysis shows that the actual fixed manufacturing overhead costs are $8,700 and the fixed manufacturing overhead costs applied to the good output are $8,440. This unfavorable difference of $260 agrees to the sum of the two variances:
| Fixed manufacturing overhead volume variance | $ 40 Favorable |
| Fixed manufacturing overhead budget variance | $300 Unfavorable |
| Total Fixed Manufacturing Overhead Variance | $260 Unfavorable |
Actual fixed manufacturing overhead costs are debited to overhead cost accounts. The credits are made to accounts such as Accounts Payable or Cash. For example:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| During 2010 | Fixed Mfg. O/H Incurred | 8,700 | ||
| Accounts Payable | 8,700 | |||
Another entry records how these overheads are assigned to the product:
| Date | Account Name | Debit | Credit | |
| During 2010 | Inventory-FG | 8,440 | ||
| Fixed Mfg. O/H Applied | 8,440 | |||
We will discuss later how to report the balances in the variance accounts under the heading "What To Do With Variance Amounts".
Relationship Between Variances
We will pursue the interdependence of variances in the following examples.
Example 1
Assume your company's standard cost for denim is $3 per yard, but you buy some denim at a bargain price of $2.50 per yard. For each yard of denim purchased, DenimWorks reports a favorable direct materials price variance of $0.50.
Let's also assume that the quality of the low-cost denim ends up being slightly lower than the quality to which your company is accustomed. This lesser quality denim causes the production to be a bit slower as workers spend additional time working around flaws in the material. In addition to this decline in productivity, you also find that some of the denim is of such poor quality that it has to be discarded. Further, some of the finished aprons don't pass the final inspection due to occasional defects not detected as the aprons were made.
You get the picture. If the favorable $0.50 per yard price variance correlates with lower quality, that denim was no bargain. The $0.50 per yard favorable variance may be more than offset by the following unfavorable quantity variances:
- direct material usage variance
- direct labor efficiency variance
- variable manufacturing overhead efficiency variance
Keep in mind that the standard cost is the cost allowed on the good output. Putting material, labor, and manufacturing overhead costs into products that will not end up as good output will likely result in unfavorable variances.
Example 2
Let's assume that you decide to hire an unskilled worker for $9 per hour instead of a skilled worker for the standard cost of $15 per hour. Although the unskilled worker will create a favorable direct labor rate variance of $6 per hour, you may see significant unfavorable variances such as direct material usage variance, direct labor efficiency variance, variable manufacturing overhead efficiency variance, and possibly a fixed manufacturing volume variance.
These two examples highlight what experienced managers know—you need to look at more than price. A low cost for an inferior input is no bargain if it results in costly inefficiencies.
What To Do With Variance Amounts
Throughout our explanation of standard costing we showed you how to calculate the variances. In the case of direct materials and direct labor, the variances were recorded in specific general ledger accounts. The manufacturing overhead variances were the differences between the accounts containing the actual costs and the accounts containing the applied costs. Now we'll discuss what we do with those variance amounts.
Direct Materials Price Variance
Let's begin by assuming that the account Direct Materials Price Variance has a debit balance of $3,500 at the end of the accounting year. You can see from the following journal entry (a hypothetical entry which assumes that all of the direct materials were purchased at one time) that a debit balance is an unfavorable variance:
Because of the cost principle, DenimWorks is obligated to report its transactions at their actual cost in the financial statements that are made available to the public. If none of the direct materials purchased in this journal entry was used in production (all of the direct materials remain in the direct materials inventory), the company's balance sheet needs to report the direct materials inventory at $13,500—the actual cost. In other words, the balance sheet will report the direct materials inventory as the standard cost of $10,000 plus the price variance of $3,500. If all of the materials were used in making products, and all of the products have been sold, the $3,500 price variance is added to the company's standard cost of goods sold. If 20% of the materials remain in the direct materials inventory and 80% of the materials are in the finished goods that have been sold, then $700 of the price variance (20% of $3,500) is added to the standard cost of the direct materials inventory, $2,800 (80% of $3,500) is added to the standard cost of goods sold.
Let's say the direct materials are in various stages of use: 20% have not been used yet; 5% are in work-in-process; 15% are in finished goods on hand; and 60% are in finished goods that have been sold. We need to apportion the $3,500 direct materials price variance to each of these stages. Since the $3,500 is an unfavorable amount, the following amounts are added to the standard costs:
The accounting professional follows a materiality guideline which says that a company may make exceptions to other accounting principles if the amount in question is insignificant. (For example, a large company may report amounts to the nearest $1,000 on its financial statements, or an inexpensive item like a wastebasket can be expensed immediately instead of being depreciated over its useful life.) This means that if the total variance of $3,500 shown above is a very, very small amount relative to the company's net income, the company can charge the entire $3,500 to cost of goods sold instead of allocating some of the amount to the inventories.
If the balance in the Direct Materials Price Variance account is a credit balance of $3,500 (instead of a debit balance) the procedure and discussion would be the same, except that the standard costs would be reduced instead of increased.
Direct Materials Usage Variance
Let's assume that the Direct Materials Usage Variance account has a debit balance of $2,000 at the end of the accounting year. A debit balance is an unfavorable balance resulting from more direct materials being used than the standard amount allowed for the good output.
The first question to ask is "Why do we have this unfavorable variance of $2,000?" If it was caused by errors and/or inefficiencies, it cannot be included as part of the cost of the inventory. Errors and inefficiencies are never considered to be assets; therefore, the entire amount must be expensed.
If the unfavorable $2,000 variance is the result of an unrealistic standard for the quantity of direct materials needed, then we should allocate the $2,000 variance to wherever the standard costs of direct materials are physically located. If 90% of the related direct materials have been sold and 10% are in the finished goods inventory, then the $2,000 should be allocated and added to the standard direct material costs as follows:
If $2,000 is an insignificant amount relative to a company's net income, the entire $2,000 unfavorable variance can be added to the cost of goods sold. This is permissible because of the materiality guideline.
If the $2,000 balance is a credit balance, the variance is favorable. This means that the actual direct materials used were less than the standard quantity of materials called for by the good output. We should allocate this $2,000 to wherever those direct materials are physically located. However, if $2,000 is an insignificant amount, the materiality guideline allows for the entire $2,000 to be deducted from the cost of goods sold on the income statement.
Other Variances
The examples above follow these guidelines:
The following table can also serve as a guide:
Direct Materials Price Variance
Let's begin by assuming that the account Direct Materials Price Variance has a debit balance of $3,500 at the end of the accounting year. You can see from the following journal entry (a hypothetical entry which assumes that all of the direct materials were purchased at one time) that a debit balance is an unfavorable variance:
| Account Name | Debit | Credit | ||
| Direct Materials Inventory (standard cost) | 10,000 | |||
| Direct Materials Price Variance | 3,500 | |||
| Accounts Payable (actual cost) | 13,500 | |||
Because of the cost principle, DenimWorks is obligated to report its transactions at their actual cost in the financial statements that are made available to the public. If none of the direct materials purchased in this journal entry was used in production (all of the direct materials remain in the direct materials inventory), the company's balance sheet needs to report the direct materials inventory at $13,500—the actual cost. In other words, the balance sheet will report the direct materials inventory as the standard cost of $10,000 plus the price variance of $3,500. If all of the materials were used in making products, and all of the products have been sold, the $3,500 price variance is added to the company's standard cost of goods sold. If 20% of the materials remain in the direct materials inventory and 80% of the materials are in the finished goods that have been sold, then $700 of the price variance (20% of $3,500) is added to the standard cost of the direct materials inventory, $2,800 (80% of $3,500) is added to the standard cost of goods sold.
Let's say the direct materials are in various stages of use: 20% have not been used yet; 5% are in work-in-process; 15% are in finished goods on hand; and 60% are in finished goods that have been sold. We need to apportion the $3,500 direct materials price variance to each of these stages. Since the $3,500 is an unfavorable amount, the following amounts are added to the standard costs:
| Direct materials inventory | $ 700 | |
| Work-in-process inventory | 175 | |
| Finished goods inventory | 525 | |
| Cost of goods sold | 2,100 | |
| Total | $3,500 |
The accounting professional follows a materiality guideline which says that a company may make exceptions to other accounting principles if the amount in question is insignificant. (For example, a large company may report amounts to the nearest $1,000 on its financial statements, or an inexpensive item like a wastebasket can be expensed immediately instead of being depreciated over its useful life.) This means that if the total variance of $3,500 shown above is a very, very small amount relative to the company's net income, the company can charge the entire $3,500 to cost of goods sold instead of allocating some of the amount to the inventories.
If the balance in the Direct Materials Price Variance account is a credit balance of $3,500 (instead of a debit balance) the procedure and discussion would be the same, except that the standard costs would be reduced instead of increased.
Direct Materials Usage Variance
Let's assume that the Direct Materials Usage Variance account has a debit balance of $2,000 at the end of the accounting year. A debit balance is an unfavorable balance resulting from more direct materials being used than the standard amount allowed for the good output.
The first question to ask is "Why do we have this unfavorable variance of $2,000?" If it was caused by errors and/or inefficiencies, it cannot be included as part of the cost of the inventory. Errors and inefficiencies are never considered to be assets; therefore, the entire amount must be expensed.
If the unfavorable $2,000 variance is the result of an unrealistic standard for the quantity of direct materials needed, then we should allocate the $2,000 variance to wherever the standard costs of direct materials are physically located. If 90% of the related direct materials have been sold and 10% are in the finished goods inventory, then the $2,000 should be allocated and added to the standard direct material costs as follows:
| Direct materials inventory | $ 0 | |
| Work-in-process inventory | 0 | |
| Finished goods inventory | 200 | |
| Cost of goods sold | 1,800 | |
| Total | $2,000 |
If $2,000 is an insignificant amount relative to a company's net income, the entire $2,000 unfavorable variance can be added to the cost of goods sold. This is permissible because of the materiality guideline.
If the $2,000 balance is a credit balance, the variance is favorable. This means that the actual direct materials used were less than the standard quantity of materials called for by the good output. We should allocate this $2,000 to wherever those direct materials are physically located. However, if $2,000 is an insignificant amount, the materiality guideline allows for the entire $2,000 to be deducted from the cost of goods sold on the income statement.
Other Variances
The examples above follow these guidelines:
- If the variance amount is very small (insignificant relative to the company's net income), simply put the entire amount on the income statement. If the variance amount is unfavorable, increase the cost of goods sold—thereby reducing net income. If the variance amount is favorable, decrease the cost of goods sold—thereby increasing net income.
- If the variance is unfavorable, significant in amount, and results from mistakes or inefficiencies, the variance amount can never be added to any inventory or asset account. These unfavorable variance amounts go directly to the income statement and reduce the company's net income.
- If the variance is unfavorable, significant in amount, and results from standard costs not being realistic, allocate the variance to the company's inventory accounts and cost of goods sold. The allocation should follow the standard costs of the inputs from which the variances arose.
- If the variance amount is favorable and significant in amount, allocate the variance to the company's inventories and its cost of goods sold.
The following table can also serve as a guide:
| Name of Variance | What It Tells You | Where Does It End Up? |
| Any variance that is insignificant in amount (small in relationship to the company's net income). | Don't be concerned with insignificant, immaterial amounts. | Put the insignificant variance amounts on the income statement without allocating any amount to inventories. |
The following variances are assumed to be significant in amount...
| Direct Materials Price - Favorable | Company paid less than its standard cost for the direct materials it purchased. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Will reduce the standard cost amount.) |
| Direct Materials Price - Unfavorable | Company paid more than its standard cost for the direct materials it purchased. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Inventory amounts are subject to lower of cost or market.) |
| Direct Materials Usage - Favorable | Company used less quantity of direct materials than called for by the company's standards. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Will reduce the standard cost amount.) |
| Direct Materials Usage - Unfavorable | Company used more quantity of direct materials than called for by the company's standards. | If variance results from inefficiencies, expense the entire amount. If variance results from unrealistic standards, allocate the variance to inventories and cost of goods sold. |
| Direct Labor Rate - Favorable | Company paid less than its standard cost for the direct labor it used. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Will reduce the standard cost amount.) |
| Direct Labor Rate - Unfavorable | Company paid more than its standard cost for the direct labor it used. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Inventory amounts are subject to lower of cost or market.) |
| Direct Labor Efficiency - Favorable | Company used less hours of direct labor than called for by the company's standards. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Will reduce the standard cost amount.) |
| Direct Labor Efficiency - Unfavorable | Company used more hours of direct labor than called for by the company's standards. | If variance results from inefficiencies, expense the entire amount. If variance results from unrealistic standards, allocate the variance to inventories and cost of goods sold. |
| Var. Mfg. O/H Spending - Favorable (assume the overhead is applied on machine hours) | The company's actual variable manufacturing overhead costs were less than the amount expected for the actual machine hours used. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Will reduce the standard cost amount.) |
| Var. Mfg. O/H Spending - Unfavorable (assume the overhead is applied on machine hours) | The company's actual variable manufacturing overhead costs were more than the amount expected for the actual machine hours used. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Inventory amounts are subject to lower of cost or market.) |
| Var. Mfg. O/H Efficiency - Favorable (assume the overhead is applied on machine hours) | The company's actual machine hours were less than the standard machine hours for the good output. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Will reduce the standard cost amount.) |
| Var. Mfg. O/H Efficiency - Unfavorable (assume the overhead is applied on machine hours) | The company's actual machine hours were more than the standard machine hours for the good output. | If variance results from inefficiencies, expense the entire amount. If variance results from unrealistic standards, allocate the variance to inventories and cost of goods sold. |
| Fixed Mfg. O/H Budget - Favorable | The company spent less on the actual fixed overhead than the amount budgeted. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Will reduce the standard cost amount.) |
| Fixed Mfg. O/H Budget - Unfavorable | The company spent more on the actual fixed overhead than the amount budgeted. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. |
| Fixed Mfg O/H Volume - Favorable | The company applied more fixed manufacturing overhead to the good output than the budgeted amount of fixed manufacturing overhead. | Allocate to inventories and cost of goods sold based on where the related standard costs are residing. (Will reduce the standard cost amount.) |
| Fixed Mfg O/H Volume - Unfavorable | The company applied less fixed manufacturing overhead to the good output than the budgeted amount of fixed manufacturing overhead. | Put the entire unfavorable amount on the income statement. |
Additional Information and Resources
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